Introduction
The Israeli-Palestinian conflict began taking shape in the late 19th century and was significantly influenced by the United Nations Partition Plan of 1947.
The plan proposed the creation of separate Arab and Jewish states from the British Mandate of Palestine.
The establishment of Israel on 14 May 1948 led to the first Arab-Israeli War. The conflict ended in 1949 with an Israeli victory and the displacement of approximately 750,000 Palestinians.
The former territory of British-ruled Palestine was subsequently divided into:
- Israel
- The West Bank
- The Gaza Strip
Tensions continued through several major wars, uprisings and failed peace initiatives.
Major Historical Developments
The Suez Crisis of 1956
The Suez Crisis began after Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal.
Israel, Britain and France launched military operations against Egypt. However, international pressure eventually forced the attacking countries to withdraw.
The Six-Day War of 1967
In June 1967, Israel fought Egypt, Jordan and Syria in the Six-Day War.
Israel captured additional territories, including:
- The West Bank
- East Jerusalem
- The Gaza Strip
- The Sinai Peninsula
- The Golan Heights
The territorial changes created by the war remain central to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
The Yom Kippur War of 1973
In 1973, Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel in an attempt to regain territories lost during the Six-Day War.
The conflict eventually contributed to negotiations that resulted in the Camp David Accords.
In 1979, Egypt became the first Arab country to sign a peace treaty with Israel.
The First Intifada
The unresolved issue of Palestinian self-determination contributed to the outbreak of the first intifada in 1987.
The uprising involved widespread demonstrations, civil resistance and violent clashes in the occupied Palestinian territories.
The Oslo Accords
The Oslo Accords were signed in 1993 and 1995.
They were intended to establish a framework for Palestinian self-governance and future negotiations between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization.
However, major issues remained unresolved, including:
- The status of Jerusalem
- Israeli settlements
- Palestinian refugees
- Security arrangements
- Final borders
- Palestinian statehood
The Second Intifada
The second intifada began in 2000 amid growing frustration over Israeli control, settlement expansion and the lack of progress in peace negotiations.
The uprising involved intense violence, military operations and attacks that caused substantial casualties among Israelis and Palestinians.
Hamas and the Division of Palestinian Leadership
Hamas won the Palestinian legislative elections in 2006.
The result led to political conflict between Hamas and Fatah. Hamas later took control of the Gaza Strip, while the Fatah-led Palestinian Authority retained authority in parts of the West Bank.
This political division weakened unified Palestinian leadership and complicated future peace negotiations.
The Gaza War of 2014
The 2014 Gaza War caused major destruction and significant casualties among Palestinians and Israelis.
The conflict further deepened hostility and worsened humanitarian conditions in the Gaza Strip.
The 2018 Gaza Protests
In 2018, Palestinians participated in large demonstrations near the Gaza-Israel border.
The protests focused on the Palestinian right of return, the Israeli blockade and conditions in Gaza.
Clashes between demonstrators and Israeli forces resulted in numerous deaths and injuries.
The May 2021 Conflict
Another major escalation occurred in May 2021.
Tensions were linked to threatened evictions of Palestinian families in East Jerusalem, confrontations at religious sites and rocket attacks from Gaza.
Israel responded with extensive air strikes, leading to further casualties and destruction.
US Policies and the Abraham Accords
Policies introduced by the administration of US President Donald Trump further strained relations between Palestinians and Israel.
These policies included:
- Moving the US Embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem
- Recognizing Jerusalem as Israel’s capital
- Reducing assistance for Palestinian refugees
- Supporting normalization agreements between Israel and Arab countries
The Abraham Accords led to the normalization of relations between Israel and several Arab states.
However, Palestinian leaders rejected the agreements because they believed that normalization was proceeding without resolving the question of Palestinian statehood.
Israel’s Far-Right Government
Benjamin Netanyahu returned to power in December 2022 through a coalition described as the most right-wing government in Israel’s history.
The government prioritized settlement expansion in the occupied West Bank and introduced controversial domestic reforms, including proposals to limit judicial oversight.
These policies increased political divisions within Israel and further raised tensions with Palestinians.
Ongoing Conflict and Regional Tensions: October 2023 to September 2024
On 7 October 2023, Hamas launched a major attack on Israel.
Its fighters crossed from Gaza into southern Israel, fired rockets and attacked Israeli communities and military positions.
The assault caused extensive deaths and injuries, while hundreds of people were taken hostage.
Israel responded with a large-scale military campaign involving aerial bombardment and ground operations in the Gaza Strip.
Israeli Military Operations in Gaza
On 8 June 2024, the Israel Defense Forces carried out an operation in central Gaza to rescue four hostages.
Gazan authorities reported that the operation killed 274 Palestinians and injured hundreds more.
Efforts to recover the remaining hostages were largely unsuccessful, and the conditions of many captives remained unknown.
By the period covered in the source article, nearly two million Gazans, representing more than 85% of the population, had been displaced.
The Gaza Health Ministry reported approximately 40,000 deaths, although restricted international access made independent verification difficult.
Strike in Southern Gaza
On 13 July, Israel carried out a major strike in southern Gaza.
At least 71 people were reportedly killed, including two senior Hamas commanders.
Despite diplomatic efforts, Israel and Hamas did not accept the ceasefire and hostage-release proposal presented by US President Joe Biden.
Expansion of Regional Tensions
The Israel-Hamas war increased instability across the Middle East.
Several Iran-aligned groups became directly or indirectly involved in the wider confrontation.
Hezbollah and Lebanon
Hezbollah fighters in Lebanon exchanged regular fire with the Israel Defense Forces.
These clashes created fears that the Gaza conflict could expand into a wider war between Israel and Hezbollah.
Houthi Attacks in the Red Sea
Yemen’s Houthi movement launched missiles and drones towards Israel.
The group also targeted commercial vessels operating in the Red Sea, disrupting international shipping routes.
Attacks in Iraq and Syria
Iran-backed armed groups launched multiple attacks on US military positions in Iraq and Syria.
The Islamic Resistance in Iraq claimed responsibility for several of these operations.
The attacks increased the risk of direct confrontation between the United States, Iran and their respective regional allies.
US Support for Israel After October 2023
Following the outbreak of war, US President Joe Biden issued a strong statement supporting Israel.
The United States resumed arms deliveries and repositioned naval forces in the Mediterranean closer to the region.
An emergency meeting of the United Nations Security Council was held, but members were unable to reach a consensus on the conflict.
International organizations quickly raised concerns about:
- The protection of Israeli and Palestinian civilians
- The treatment of hostages held in Gaza
- The scale of Israeli air strikes
- Restrictions on humanitarian assistance
- The possibility of regional escalation
Casualties During the First Month
During the first month of fighting, approximately 1,300 Israelis and 10,000 Palestinians were reported killed.
The rapidly increasing death toll created urgent international concern.
Iran’s Regional Role
The United States reported that it had no direct evidence proving that Iranian intelligence or security forces planned the 7 October attack.
However, Iran’s longstanding support for Hamas, Hezbollah and other armed groups remained well documented.
Disruption of Saudi-Israel Normalization
Before the October conflict, the United States was working to facilitate a normalization agreement between Saudi Arabia and Israel.
The war disrupted those efforts.
Saudi Arabia has historically supported Palestinian rights and expressed concern about civilian suffering in Gaza.
According to the source article, the United States nevertheless believed that Saudi Arabia remained interested in a possible normalization agreement.
Escalation of the October 2023 Conflict
The Hamas attack involved large rocket barrages and armed infiltrations into southern Israeli cities and communities.
The assault reportedly caused:
- More than 1,300 Israeli deaths
- Approximately 3,300 injuries
- The capture of hundreds of hostages
Israel responded by declaring war on Hamas and imposing a complete siege on Gaza.
This represented the most severe escalation in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in decades.
Evacuation of Northern Gaza
Israel ordered more than one million Palestinian civilians in northern Gaza to evacuate before launching a major ground invasion on 27 October.
The ground operation continued alongside intensive aerial bombardment.
Temporary Truce and Hostage Exchange
The first phase of the invasion paused on 24 November under a temporary agreement.
The truce allowed:
- The release of some Israeli and foreign hostages
- The release of Palestinian prisoners held by Israel
- An increase in humanitarian assistance entering Gaza
However, fighting resumed shortly afterwards.
Military operations increasingly focused on Khan Younis, which Israel described as a major Hamas stronghold.
Operations in Rafah
Under pressure from the United States, Israel reduced its troop presence in parts of Gaza in early 2024.
Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu nevertheless insisted on continuing operations in Rafah.
More than one million displaced Palestinians had sought refuge in and around the southern Gaza city.
Operations at Al-Shifa Hospital
In mid-March, Israel conducted a two-week raid on Al-Shifa Hospital, Gaza’s largest medical facility.
Israel alleged that Hamas was using the hospital as a command centre.
The operation reportedly resulted in:
- Approximately 200 fighters killed
- Around 500 people captured
The United States later stated that Hamas had previously used the facility but had evacuated before the raid.
In late April, mass graves containing more than 300 bodies were discovered at Al-Shifa Hospital and Nasser Hospital in Khan Younis.
The discoveries prompted calls for an independent investigation by the United Nations.
Direct Israel-Iran Confrontation
On 1 April, Israel struck an Iranian consular building in Damascus, Syria.
The attack killed several senior Iranian military officers.
Iran retaliated on 13 April by launching more than 300 drones and missiles towards Israel.
This marked Iran’s first direct large-scale attack on Israeli territory.
Israel and its allies intercepted most of the incoming weapons, resulting in limited damage.
Israel later conducted a restricted aerial strike against Iranian military targets.
Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi downplayed the response, indicating that Iran did not want further escalation.
The Humanitarian Emergency in Gaza
Gaza experienced severe shortages of:
- Food
- Clean water
- Fuel
- Medicine
- Electricity
- Medical equipment
- Humanitarian supplies
Ceasefire proposals presented by the United States and Egypt did not lead to a lasting agreement.
Israel continued to restrict the flow of humanitarian aid, while Hamas rejected some of the proposed arrangements.
Deaths of Humanitarian Workers
Humanitarian operations were seriously affected after seven World Central Kitchen employees were killed in an Israeli air strike.
The incident led several aid organizations to suspend or reduce their activities.
Threat of Famine
The World Food Programme warned that famine was becoming imminent.
Hospitals that remained operational struggled with shortages of medicine, electricity, staff and equipment.
Overcrowding, unsafe water and poor sanitation also increased the risk of disease outbreaks.
Pressure on Egypt and Jordan
The displacement of Palestinians placed significant pressure on Egypt and Jordan.
Both countries have historically hosted large refugee populations but remained reluctant to accept large numbers of additional Palestinians.
Their concerns included:
- The possibility of permanent displacement
- Domestic security risks
- Economic pressure
- Political instability
According to the source article, only around 1,100 people had crossed from Gaza into Egypt through the Rafah border.
Approximately 1.5 million displaced Gazans remained trapped in deteriorating conditions in southern Gaza.
Stalemate at the War’s One-Year Mark
As the war entered its twelfth month, there was little indication of an immediate ceasefire or a comprehensive hostage-release agreement.
Hamas demanded a complete Israeli withdrawal from Gaza.
Prime Minister Netanyahu insisted that Israeli forces remain along the Gaza-Egypt border.
The United States, Qatar and Egypt continued mediating between the two sides.
However, both parties maintained positions that were difficult to reconcile.
Reported Casualties
Authorities in Hamas-administered Gaza reported at least 40,939 Palestinian deaths.
The United Nations human rights office stated that women and children represented a large proportion of those killed.
According to official Israeli figures cited in the source article, the 7 October attack caused 1,205 deaths, mostly civilians.
Of the 251 hostages taken during the attack, 97 reportedly remained in Gaza, including 33 whom the Israeli military believed were dead.
Several hostages had been released during the temporary truce in November.
Recovery of Hostage Bodies
Israel announced the recovery of the bodies of six hostages, including a US-Israeli citizen.
The announcement caused grief and anger within Israel and intensified public pressure on the government to reach an agreement.
Philippe Lazzarini, head of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees, called for an immediate ceasefire and stated that the conflict had continued for too long.
Killing of a Turkish-American Activist
International pressure increased after Turkish-American activist Aysenur Ezgi Eygi was shot dead during a demonstration against Israeli settlements in the occupied West Bank.
Her family demanded an independent investigation into her death.
The United Nations human rights office reported that she had been shot in the head by Israeli forces.
Turkey condemned the incident, while the United States described her death as tragic and called on Israel to investigate.
Violence in the West Bank
Israeli settlements in the occupied West Bank are considered illegal under international law.
Approximately 490,000 Israeli settlers live in the territory.
Since the 7 October attack, Israeli troops or settlers reportedly killed more than 662 Palestinians in the West Bank.
At least 23 Israelis, including members of the security forces, were killed in Palestinian attacks during the same period.
Raid in Jenin
Israeli forces withdrew after a ten-day military operation in the West Bank city of Jenin.
Residents returning to the area found widespread destruction.
The raid occurred while Israel and the United States disagreed over the progress of ceasefire negotiations.
US Secretary of State Antony Blinken stated that approximately 90% of a ceasefire agreement had been settled.
Prime Minister Netanyahu rejected that assessment and said an agreement was not close.
Continued Violence in Gaza
Air strikes and shelling continued across Gaza.
Reported attacks occurred in:
- Nuseirat refugee camp
- Bureij refugee camp
- Jabalia
- Beit Lahia
- Gaza City
- Sheikh Radwan
Several civilians, including women and children, were reportedly killed.
An Israeli strike on a school being used as a shelter for displaced people reportedly killed at least three people and injured more than 20.
Israel-Hezbollah Exchanges
Israel and Hezbollah continued exchanging fire across the Lebanon-Israel border.
Hezbollah announced attacks on Israeli military bases using Katyusha rockets.
Israel carried out air strikes and shelling in southern Lebanon.
The Israeli military stated that it intercepted some missiles launched from Lebanon and later targeted Hezbollah positions.
Humanitarian Impact of Israeli Military Operations
The civilian population of Gaza faced severe hardship because of continued military operations and restrictions on land, sea and air access.
As military action intensified, civilians had fewer safe areas available.
Mass displacement also made it increasingly difficult for humanitarian organizations to deliver assistance.
Vital infrastructure approached complete collapse.
Displaced families crowded into schools, hospitals and temporary shelters, while the water system remained barely operational.
Attacks on Medical Facilities
The Geneva Conventions require civilian hospitals and medical facilities to be respected and protected during armed conflict.
Despite these protections, several health facilities in Gaza were damaged or attacked.
These included:
- Al-Quds Hospital
- Al-Ahli Hospital
- Al-Nasr Hospital
- Al-Shifa Hospital
- Nasser Hospital
By June 2024, the World Health Organization reported:
- 464 attacks affecting health facilities
- 727 health workers killed
- 933 health workers injured
- 113 ambulances damaged or destroyed
Scale of Civilian Casualties
During the eleven-month period covered in the source article, Israeli military operations reportedly resulted in more than 40,000 Palestinian deaths and over 90,000 injuries.
Women and children made up a substantial proportion of the casualties.
The article argues that the civilian death toll exceeded casualties reported in other contemporary conflicts.
Western Support for Israel
Western countries continued supplying Israel with weapons and diplomatic support throughout the conflict.
Critics argued that this support prolonged the military campaign and weakened international efforts to secure a ceasefire.
The article also highlights what it describes as a double standard in Western responses to the Gaza and Russia-Ukraine conflicts.
Western governments imposed sanctions on Russia and strongly condemned civilian casualties and infrastructure destruction in Ukraine.
However, the article argues that criticism of Israeli attacks on civilian infrastructure in Gaza remained comparatively limited.
Failure of International Institutions
The continued violence reflects the failure to implement relevant United Nations Security Council resolutions and the limited effectiveness of the Middle East Quartet.
The Quartet consists of:
- The European Union
- The United Nations
- The United States
- Russia
The article criticizes Western countries for blocking or weakening United Nations Security Council resolutions intended to pause the conflict or condemn attacks on civilians.
The Path Towards a Lasting Peace
According to the article, ending the bloodshed requires Western countries to reconsider unconditional military and diplomatic support for Israel.
A sustainable peace process must address the legitimate political, humanitarian and national demands of the Palestinian people.
Important measures include:
- An immediate and lasting ceasefire
- The release of hostages and prisoners through negotiation
- Unrestricted humanitarian access to Gaza
- Protection of civilians and medical facilities
- Compliance with international humanitarian law
- Implementation of relevant United Nations resolutions
- An end to settlement expansion
- A credible political process for Palestinian self-determination
Conclusion
The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is rooted in decades of competing national claims, occupation, displacement, war and failed diplomacy.
The October 2023 escalation caused unprecedented destruction in Gaza, extensive Israeli and Palestinian casualties, mass displacement and growing regional instability.
The involvement of Hezbollah, the Houthis, Iran-backed militias and direct exchanges between Israel and Iran increased the danger of a broader Middle Eastern conflict.
At the same time, the humanitarian crisis in Gaza exposed the inability of the international community to protect civilians or enforce international law consistently.
A military solution alone cannot end the conflict.
Lasting peace requires political dialogue, respect for international law, protection of civilians and meaningful action towards Palestinian self-determination.
Without addressing the underlying causes of the conflict, cycles of violence, displacement and retaliation are likely to continue.